Ecopsychology and Nature-Based Therapies
Stephanie A. Shanti ©
Introduction
Theodore Roszak was one of the first to develop the term “ecopsychology” and write about it. His work emphasizes the implications of our disconnection from nature for mental health. In his writings he emphasizes the integration of psychology and ecology; the bringing together of psychological principles and practices to environmental education and action. Psychotherapy and personal growth can be shown to benefit from the contributions of ecological thinking and the values of the natural world. Lifestyles can be followed that are both ecologically and psychologically healthy.
The emerging field of ecopsychology brings psychological principles to environmental education. It is based on three ideas: “genuine sanity, which is grounded in the reality of the natural world; ecological crisis, which signifies a break from this reality; and the route out of the crisis, which involves a psychological reconciliation with the living earth” (Fisher, 2002, p. 8). Thus, we can say that there is a deeply bonded and reciprocal relationship between humans and nature. The separation of humans and nature leads to suffering for both the environment and for humans. Realizing this connection results in a healing for both; a reconnection. Hence, ecopsychology integrates ecology and psychology. Its function is to bring psychological principles and practices to environmental education and action, bring the contributions of ecological thinking and the values of the natural world to psychotherapy and personal growth, and promote lifestyles that are both ecologically and psychologically healthy.
The core belief within ecopsychology is that sanity cannot be attained in an unhealthy environment. In order to lead a healthy and balanced life, one needs to reconnect to the natural world. For too many years, mainstream psychology has only been concerned with the individualistic aspects of sanity, without paying attention to the surroundings. Ecopsychology proposes to bridge the gap between the ethnocentric view that human beings are at the center of the universe and the native belief that we are all part of the same world. Within this view, the notion of self is redefined and the boundaries are moved, connecting the outside world to the internal world.
Ecopsychology encompasses various dimensions: it is a philosophical, social, environmental and psychological movement, with applied therapeutic methods. Some of those methods have blurred boundaries and can be classified as nature-based therapies. Ecotherapy, wilderness therapy, nature therapy, and outdoor therapy, all possess some of the fundamental aspects that are defined within ecopsychology; they all use nature as a tool to promote health. Thus, in this paper, I propose an overview of such techniques and their benefits on health by first discussing two empirical articles on wilderness therapy and then, two theoretical articles on ecotherapies.
My intention in writing this paper was to collect relevant data concerning the effects of nature on patients and demonstrate the benefits of the natural environment on well-being. Unfortunately, due to the lack of research in the field of ecopsychology, my primary Boolean search using the key words Ecopsychology AND Ecotherapy did not return any empirical data, only theoretical articles and book reviews. As a consequence, I entered the words Wilderness AND Therapy and found the relevant empirical data I was searching for.
Clark, J., Marmol, L., Cooley, R., & Gathercoal, K. (2004). The effects of wilderness therapy on the clinical concerns (on axes I, II, and IV) of troubled adolescents. Journal of Experiential Education, 27, 213-232.
In this experimental article, the authors hypothesize that strenuous physical outdoor group experiences, such as those found in Wilderness Therapies (WT), can be very effective therapy forms. In fact, they believe that WT has the potential for effecting “characterological” change, especially with adolescents suffering from maladaptive behaviors. In order to effect a change, the authors believe that it is important to intervene in the early stages of personality disorders, before personality traits become more entrenched. Because of the physically and emotionally demanding nature of such experiences, one’s safety depends upon adaptive behavior within the group. As a result, participants gain in self-esteem and ego-strengths, and learn healthier coping mechanisms in a very short period.
The purpose of this study was to empirically evaluate the effects of WT on various dysfunctional personality patterns and identify the types of clinical concerns on Axes I, II, and IV for which WT is most effective. Participants were 109 (68 male, 41 female) with a mean age of 15.39, selected from a convenience sample. The program evaluated for this study was the 21-day Catherine Freer Wilderness Therapy Expeditions program (CFWTE). The statistically significant results supported the author’s hypothesis that WT would have a positive effect on the post-test immature defense, expressed concerns, dysfunctional personality patterns, and maladaptive behavior scores of participants. Furthermore, statistically significant results were also found for clinical syndromes such as: eating disorders, anxiety, depressive affect, and suicidal tendencies. Moderate effects were found for substance abuse proneness and delinquent predisposition.
The principal strength of this study is the scope of its findings and their implications for future research. Furthermore, not only did the authors base their hypothesis on previous empirical data and were able to replicate some of the results, but they also looked at the effects of WT from a holistic perspective. Such findings open the door to a brand new vision of the implication of the environment on mental health, and especially on its effects on personality disorders.
One of the weaknesses of this study is the fact that there was no comparison group and that only one WT program was surveyed. Thus, the results cannot be generalized to other programs. Furthermore, for readers who are not familiar with this type of WT program, there is no mention of what happened during the 21 days. Only statistical results are presented, but no descriptions of the types of activities are provided. Also, with such a study, it is difficult to differentiate between the effects of tenuous and challenging physical exercise on the participants and the mere effects of just being in nature.
Despite the fact that this article was not really reader friendly and was mainly based on statistical evidence with little theoretical background and descriptive information, it holds a great potential for future research. By demonstrating that WT can be so effective on personality disorders and behavioral problems in a very short period, it is an encouragement for the implementation of more such programs in the health care system.
Russel, K., & Phillips-Miller, D. (2002). Perspectives on the wilderness therapy process and its relation to outcome. Child and Youth Care Forum, 31, 415-437.
The purpose of this multi-site case study was to investigate the effect the wilderness therapy process would have on adolescents with problematic behavior such as school problems, substance abuse, repressed anger, and resistance to other forms of counseling. Participants were nine adolescent males and three adolescent females with an average age of 17, who suffered from behavioral problems and participated in one of four different wilderness programs. The average length of each program was 38 days in wilderness. In order to collect data, one of the researchers served as an observer who spent seven to-ten days in the field, observing three client cases at each program and taking notes. At the end of the program, all participants were interviewed and were asked to comment on their reasons for attending the program, what they thought of it, and what they had learned from this wilderness therapy experience. Also, a clinical debriefing was conducted with staff members including licensed psychologists, Master’s level counselors, and social workers. The results indicated a deeper relationship with the therapist, good peer dynamic and facilitated reflection on life: especially during the solo journey into wilderness. Finally, by the end of the program, participants noted a deep desire for change.
The basic strength of this article was the fact that the author surveyed not just one wilderness program, but four. All of the programs were selected based on their inclusion in the Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare Industry Council (OBHIC), a national organization providing clinical supervision of therapeutic wilderness programs. Furthermore, the authors began by defining wilderness therapy and giving some historical perspectives. They also included in their article many of the written statements given by the participants, thus, providing the reader with a deeper and more personal understanding. Finally, the authors also discussed the therapeutic effects of the solo journey, which is comparable to the rite of passage in native cultures. In doing so, they acknowledged the fact that such transition rites are now absent in Western cultures, thus, potentially creating a void resulting in conflicting messages for adolescents, and indicated that more research in this field is needed.
The main limitation of this study is the small number of participants and the fact that all data was collected using interviews and open questions only. Furthermore, the observer interacted with the participants on a daily basis, which could have influenced the objectivity of the assessments.
Despite the limited number of participants, this article was very informative, well written, and because of its numerous case examples, was easy to read for professionals and non-professionals. The authors based their hypothesis on previous findings and produced detailed information on wilderness therapy. Furthermore, they proposed several new research ideas that seem very promising for the future of the counseling profession. Also, the authors’ suggestion that by incorporating some of the wilderness aspects such as: outdoor exercise, healthy food, journal keeping, and solo time into clinical settings, provides other clinicians with a valuable insight that could greatly benefit clients.
Berger, R., & McLeod, J. (2005). Doing therapy in nature: developing a framework for practice. Counseling and Psychotherapy Research Journal, 1, 1-5.
In this theoretical article, the authors present an overview of different techniques used as part of nature therapy. In their opinion, nature is a powerful “healing resource” that can be used in order to restore well-being. Since the time of industrialization, humans have lost their connection to their natural surroundings. As a result, a duality has emerged and the sense of connectedness to the environment and its living creatures has disappeared, thus generating new types of symptoms. In this article, the authors suggest we learn from our ancestors who lived in communion with the cycles of nature and carried out regular religious rituals marking changes. The purpose of such rituals was a social commitment to one’s community and a sense of order and security. Furthermore, the authors note that in our modern individualistic societies, people experience similar distress as their predecessors, such as fear of uncertainty and the unknown, but instead of rituals, seek therapy.
One of the strengths of this article is the fact that the authors acknowledge the importance of nature therapy as a vehicle for raising ecological awareness and moving from an individualistic perspective to a more collective view. Also, they discuss the value of incorporating nature into the therapeutic setting and provide the reader with concrete cases. For example, confrontation with the elements seems to trigger fears that are imbedded in one’s personality and reveal avoidance patterns. In nature, clients are faced with their own anxieties and need to learn new coping mechanisms to overcome the obstacles they encounter. Furthermore, the authors provide examples of working with the natural environment such as holding therapeutic sessions outdoors and working with the arising emotions, or bringing nature indoors, by introducing elements such as plants, stones, wood, and water into the counseling office. Thus, by providing the reader with a multitude of examples, the authors are able to demonstrate the potential value of such techniques and give a brief overview of the possibilities.
This article’s main weakness is the fact that it is not based on any empirical research. Even though the authors note that, at the present time, there is very little research evidence concerning the use of nature-based therapies, none of the existing evidence is mentioned. Unfortunately, the entire article consists of examples without concrete outcomes and no scientific data to back up their claims. Furthermore, although the authors briefly discuss rituals, there is no mention of rites of passage and vision quests. Unlike the examples provided above, such rituals can be very powerful because clients are left alone in wilderness for a few days, before returning to their base-camp and being debriefed by therapists.
Despite the lack of empirical support for this article, therapists might benefit from the information presented and incorporate some of the techniques into their own practice. Also, this article presents an array of different nature-based approaches and can serve as an introduction to the fields of ecotherapy and wilderness therapies. Considering the current state of our environment and the rising concerns linked to our own well-being, such therapies seem to be very promising.
Surridge, J., McKie, J., Housden, J., & Whitt, D. (2004). Wild at heart: tapping into the restorative power of the great outdoors. Mental Health Practice, 7, 20-23.
In this article, the authors describe and discuss the benefits of a newly added program at Darwin Ward, a 20-bed mental hospital unit in England. Until recently, patients in this psychiatric ward were not given much hope and were usually never reintegrated into society. Because of the lack of activity, many patients had abandoned the hope of ever getting better and became totally dependant on the staff for daily activities. With the changes in the health care system and the new expectation of moving toward less intense rehabilitative environments, the staff at Darwin Ward was faced with a new challenge: They needed to re-orient their therapeutic approach and begin teaching their patients more independent ways of living. As a result, one the authors, while trekking in the Himalayan region, reflected on the beauty of the natural environment and on its potential therapeutic benefits. On return to the UK, he became acquainted with the emerging field of ecopsychology, which provided a reference point for the creation of the new program: Reflection. The foundation of ecopsychology is that the state of the natural environment is close to our internal, psychological state. The current destruction of our environment is understood as a projection of our anxieties. In order to bring sanity back, we need to reconnect to our surroundings and realize the beauty and oneness of nature, thereby realizing our own beauty and oneness with the elements. Therefore, the aim of the program “Reflection” was to take a few patients outdoors into wilderness and teach them new skills. By reconnecting to nature and experiencing its beauty, the few who participated in the pilot study developed a sense of belongingness and discovered new meaning in their lives. Some were reminded of their youth and felt immense freedom and joy. The program was a success and patients are now looking forward to new wilderness journeys.
The strength of this article is its innovative nature. Most wilderness programs cater to young adolescents with behavioral problems. None of the research has yet addressed the impact of wilderness on the mentally ill adults. Therefore, this non-empirical article describes the potential benefits of nature and the outdoors on a different population. Furthermore, this article introduces the emerging field of ecopsychology and its new tenet that mental health is closely linked to environmental health, and that sanity cannot be achieved in an unhealthy environment. Thus, this new program can serve as an inspiration to other mental health settings and clinics.
The fact that this article describes a tentative program which has not yet been evaluated through empirical research is its main weakness. Unfortunately, to this day, not much research has been done in the field of ecopsychology and ecotherapy, therefore, the authors of this article had to inspire themselves from previous studies on wilderness therapies.
With this last article, the focus has moved from wilderness therapies, which give little acknowledgment to the therapeutic effects of nature itself, to ecotherapies, which stem from ecopsychology and the belief that sanity is dependant on our connection to the natural world. Thus, this new vision of sanity encompasses population as a whole and shows us a new direction toward greater fulfillment and well-being.
Summary
There is general agreement that there has been, and continues to be, a violation of non human life on the planet and a gradual wasting of the earth. There is an irony in the idea that the health system provides for the treatment of people with mental disorders to undergo psychotherapy while everyday social forces continue to violate nature by destroying the biosphere unabated, which in itself guarantees a steady supply of patients.
Ecopsychology is an effort at recovery, at recalling just how, in psychological terms, we humans are part of the life process. Human healing needs to be done in concert with the healing of the larger natural world. The emphasis is on the human-nature relationship, the link connecting psychology and ecology.
In reviewing the literature on nature-based therapies, it becomes quite clear that humans greatly benefit from the natural environment. Most of the empirical data covers the effects of wilderness therapy on adolescents with behavior problems. Apparently, being in the outdoors for prolonged periods of time and undergoing strenuous physical activity holds the potential for effecting changes of character. The statistically significant results attest to the fact that such therapy helps change maladaptive behaviors, thus enhancing the sense of responsibility, reducing substance dependence and abuse, and improves team spirit and cohesiveness. Furthermore, participants create deeper bonding with therapists when challenged by nature and respond more positively to therapy. One of the most interesting effects of such therapy is its capacity to foster a more reflective environment in which participants enjoy solo time and discover deeper meaning in their lives. In native cultures, solo time and rites of passage are inherent to the process of maturing of young adults. Such rituals allow young people to formally step into adulthood and be acknowledged and respected for it.
The powerful healing effects of nature stem from the fact that when confronted with the elements, avoidance patterns are revealed and new and healthier coping mechanisms are learned. Furthermore, by enabling patients to reconnect to nature and experience its beauty, a sense of belongingness emerges and life becomes more meaningful. In certain cases, mental health patients who had been institutionalized for many years and lost all hope were able to recollect positive memories of their childhoods and feel immense joy once more. The beauty of experimental programs such as the one conducted in the psychiatric ward in England, is that they not only hold a positive outcome for health agencies by cutting down the costs of long-term institutionalization, but also bring back meaning into people’s lives, thereby giving them something positive to look forward to once they are released.
With ecopsychology and nature-based therapies, there is an emergence of greater respect toward the environment and the awareness of its therapeutic values. The positive and encouraging results of the current research pave the way for therapists to incorporate the healing resources of the natural world and the use of the outdoors into their practice. Hence, this new eco-awareness promotes a paradigm shift in the health professions, allowing the future generation of therapists, myself included, to redefine sanity and place the notion of mental health in a broader context.
References
Berger, R., & McLeod, J. (2005). Doing therapy in nature: developing a framework for practice. Counseling and Psychotherapy Research Journal, 1, 1-5.
Clark, J., Marmol, L., Cooley, R., & Gathercoal, K. (2004). The effects of wilderness therapy on the clinical concerns (on axes I, II, and IV) of troubled adolescents. Journal of Experiential Education, 27, 213-232.
Fisher, A. (2002). Radical Ecopsychology. New York, NY: State University Press.
Roszak, T. (1995). Ecopsychology. San Francisco, CA: Sierra Club Books.
Russel, K., & Phillips-Miller, D. (2002). Perspectives on the wilderness therapy process and its relation to outcome. Child and Youth Care Forum, 31, 415-437.
Surridge, J. (2004). Wild at heart: tapping into the restorative power of the great outdoors. Mental Health Practice, 7, 20-23.
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